LOW-SODIUM LABELING AFFECTS TASTE PERCEPTION, SALT USE

Foods carrying nutrition labels or heart healthy logos touting sodium reduction can negatively affect taste perception and salt use, according to a study published in the journal Public Health Nutrition.

Researchers at Deakin University conducted a study to investigate the effect of nutrient labels and health logos on expected and perceived liking and salt intensity of sodium-reduced soups. The study involved 50 participants, more than half of which had stated that health labels affect their food choices. Three variations in sodium content of a commercially available chicken noodle soup were tested: the benchmark product with no sodium reduction; 15% sodium-reduced soup; and 30% sodium-reduced soup. The remaining ingredients were the same. Each of the soup products was labeled with one of three labels: no health label; a nutrient label stating “Now reduced in salt, great taste"; or the “Tick" health logo.

On three separate days, participants tasted three soups with the three different labels in random order, with the option to add salt at their discretion from a salt shaker. Expected and perceived saltiness were measured with a 9-point just-about-right scale (1= ‘not salty enough at all’, 5= ‘just about the right amount of salt for me’, 9= ‘far too salty for me’), whereas expected and perceived liking were measured with a 9-point hedonic scale (1= ‘not liked at all’ to 9= ‘extremely liked’).

Participants were shown the packaged soup and asked what they expected of it in terms of liking, desire and saltiness. Soups were then freshly prepared from the shown packs. While tasting each soup, the study participants were requested to rate it on perceived liking and salt intensity. After tasting a spoonful, they were permitted to add as much salt as they wanted from the salt shakers. Between different soups, participants had to rinse their mouth with water. In total, all participants sampled all nine combinations of soup and label.

For all types of soup, more participants added table salt when the soup carried the reduced-salt label compared to when the same soup carried either the health logo or no label. Those who did add salt, additionally added more salt when soups carried the reduced-salt label, independent of the actual sodium content of the soup. When 30% sodium-reduced soup was labeled with a reduced-salt label, participants over-compensated the reduction in sodium by adding table salt beyond benchmark levels.

The mere exposure to the reduced-salt label resulted in lower expectations and lower actual taste experience of the soups in terms of liking and saltiness. The perceived saltiness of the soups with a salt-reduction label was lower than would be expected based on the actual amount of salt in the soup. Providing the health logo or no label did not influence taste perception. Only 28% of the participants added salt to the 15% sodium-reduced soups, indicating that such a reduction may be feasible to implement if consumers are not made aware of the modification.

ZEROING IN ON ZINC

Zinc is an essential mineral in the human diet serving a number of functions from the formation of essential enzymes to strengthening the immune system.

“Zinc helps in the production of around 100 enzymes in your body, supports the immune system and helps maintain your senses of smell and taste," states Jayesh Chaudhari, senior formulation scientist, Fortitech, Inc., Schenectady, NY. In addition, zinc is essential for protein synthesis and supports normal growth and development. Because the body does not store zinc, a daily intake is required to maintain zinc levels.

Our nutritional requirements for zinc increase with age from birth, when we need 2 mg per day, to age 14, when males need 11 mg per day and females 9 mg per day, with the greatest RDAs indicated for boys and men over age 14 (11 mg per day), and pregnant and lactating women (needs range from 11 to 13 mg per day, depending on age). Though most life stages have an RDA for zinc, the Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, Washington, established an Adequate Intake for infants ages 0 to 6 months that is equivalent to the mean intake of zinc in healthy, breastfed infants. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level for zinc ranges from 4 mg for infants 0 to 6 months of age to 40 mg for adults 9 years of age or older.

Sources and bioavailability of zinc

“Most nonvegetarian foods that are good sources of zinc include beef, lamb, pork, crab, turkey, chicken, lobster, clams and salmon," Chaudhari says. "Vegetarian sources include dairy products, such as milk and cheese, yeast, peanuts, beans, whole-grain cereals, brown rice, whole-wheat bread, potato and yogurt. Additionally, pumpkin seeds are one of the most-concentrated vegetarian sources of zinc." Though the zinc in plant-based foods is less bioavailable, bioavailability can be increased by soaking beans, grains and seeds for several hours and letting them sit until sprouts form prior to cooking (Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 2003;103:748-765). In addition, leavening increases zinc bioavailability by partially breaking down the naturally occuring phytates, compounds that bind zinc, inhibiting its absorption.

Bioavailability refers to the efficiency of absorption and utilization, or retention, of the nutrients that are present in food. Several factors affect bioavailability, including components found in the food itself, food processing, human physiology and a persons’ health status. Also, nutrients compete with other nutrients for absorption. Some nutrients will enhance or reduce the amount of other nutrients being absorbed by the body. Because there are many factors that affect the bioavailability of zinc, it is not possible to accurately compare the bioavailability of zinc from two different sources of the nutrient.

Zinc and health

Zinc deficiency is prevalent in the developing world, though both zinc deficiency and toxicity are rare in the United States (Molecular Medicine, 2008; 14:353-357). Zinc deficiency typically results from inadequate zinc intake or absorption, an increase in zinc requirements or excess zinc losses. Some diseases, certain digestive disorders, gastrointestinal surgeries and chronic diarrhea can all lead to excessive zinc losses. In addition to diseases and conditions that lead to greater zinc losses, some people have increased zinc needs, including vegetarians, who may need 50% more than the RDA, because plant-based sources of zinc are less bioavailable. Additionally, pregnant and lactating women (11 to 13 mg per day), infants ages 7 to 12 months who are exclusively breastfed (3 mg per day; the amount of zinc in breast milk does not meet the zinc needs of this age group), those with sickle cell disease and alcoholics all have increased zinc needs.

Zinc deficiency can lead to growth retardation, hypogonadism, cognitive impairment and immune dysfunction (Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 2009; 28:257-265).

Zinc deficiency also adversely affects several aspects of immune functioning, decreases resistance to pathogens and impairs wound healing (Annual Reviews of Nutrition, 1990;10:415-31; Wound Repair and Regeneration, 2007;15:2-16). A review of 13 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials found that supplemental intake of zinc within 24 hours of the onset of a cold was associated with a significant reduction in the duration and severity of common cold symptoms in healthy people. In addition, zinc supplementation for at least five months was found to reduce cold incidence, school absenteeism and prescription of antibiotics in children (Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2011; (2):CD001364). In addition, a meta analysis of 17 randomized, controlled trials of zinc supplementation in infants and children found that zinc supplementation significantly reduced both the frequency and severity of diarrhea and respiratory illnesses in this population (Pediatrics, 2007; 119:1,120-1,130).

Zinc supplementation doesn't just impact immune functioning. The Age-Related Eye Disease Study found that a supplemental combination of zinc, beta-carotene, vitamin C and vitamin E slowed the progression of age-related macular degeneration (Current Opinion in Ophthalmology, 2010; 21:184-189).

Zinc toxicity in humans is rare, although long-term intake at levels above the tolerable upper limit can result in adverse health effects. And, consuming large quantities of zinc can lead to a copper deficiency (Food and Nutrition Board, IOM).

Fortification caveats

Zinc fortification is an effective approach to improving a population’s zinc status, increasing both dietary zinc intake and total daily zinc absorption. In addition, the majority of studies also show that adding zinc to food does not adversely affect the absorption of other minerals (Food Nutrition Bulletin, 2009;30:S79-107).

However, different forms of zinc added to foods can impact the taste and overall sensory quality of the finished product, depending on the amount of zinc added and type used. According to Chaudhari, “most zinc salts do contribute typical “metallic taste," which could be easily minimized with the use of encapsulated or coated forms, along with a combination of the right flavor and sweetener."

Men think meat is macho and salad is for wimps, claims research

MEN are put off eating a healthy diet because they feel meat is masculine and vegetables are for wimps, new research suggests.

Researchers found men have a strong psychological association between meat and being macho and have the opposite association to salads and greens.

They conducted a number of experiments that looked at the metaphors and words men used in connection with certain foods, like meat and milk.

The psychologists also analysed 23 languages that use gendered pronouns to see if there was a connection between manly words and certain meats.

Results showed meat generated more masculine words when people discussed it, like strong and tough, with most languages relating meat to the male gender.

People also saw male meat eaters as more manly than non-meat eaters.

One of the research team, Professor Paul Rozin of the University of Pennsylvania, said: "We examined whether people in Western cultures have a metaphoric link between meat and men.

"To the strong, traditional, macho, bicep-flexing, All-American male, red meat is a strong, traditional, macho, bicep-flexing, All-American food.

"Soy is not. To eat it, they would have to give up a food they saw as strong and powerful like themselves for a food they saw as weak and wimpy."

But Liz O'Neill of the Vegetarian Society said there was "misconception" that vegetarianism was a "bit girlie".

"It’s absolute nonsense," she said.

"You don’t need to be a meat eater to be a red-blooded male. I can’t comment on my own vegan husband’s masculinity but I am very happy.”

She pointed out that factors such as obesity and high blood levels of blood pressure and obesity linked to erectile dysfunction were less likely to be suffered by vegetarians.

Study finds java drinkers live longer

One of life's simple pleasures just got a little sweeter. After years of waffling research on coffee and health, even some fear that java might raise the risk of heart disease, a big study finds the opposite: Coffee drinkers are a little more likely to live longer. Regular or decaf doesn't matter.

The study of 400,000 people is the largest ever done on the issue, and the results should reassure any coffee lovers who think it's a guilty pleasure that may do harm.

"Our study suggests that's really not the case," said lead researcher Neal Freedman of the National Cancer Institute. "There may actually be a modest benefit of coffee drinking."

No one knows why. Coffee contains a thousand things that can affect health, from helpful antioxidants to tiny amounts of substances linked to cancer. The most widely studied ingredient - caffeine - didn't play a role in the new study's results.

It's not that earlier studies were wrong. There is evidence that coffee can raise LDL, or bad cholesterol, and blood pressure at least short-term, and those in turn can raise the risk of heart disease.

Even in the new study, it first seemed that coffee drinkers were more likely to die at any given time. But they also tended to smoke, drink more alcohol, eat more red meat and exercise less than non-coffee-drinkers. Once researchers took those things into account, a clear pattern emerged: Each cup of coffee per day nudged up the chances of living longer.

The study was done by the National Institutes of Health and AARP. The results are published in Thursday's New England Journal of Medicine.

Careful, though - this doesn't prove that coffee makes people live longer, only that the two seem related. Like most studies on diet and health, this one was based strictly on observing people's habits and resulting health. So it can't prove cause and effect.

But with so many people, more than a decade of follow-up and enough deaths to compare, "this is probably the best evidence we have" and are likely to get, said Dr. Frank Hu of the Harvard School of Public Health. He had no role in this study but helped lead a previous one that also found coffee beneficial.

The new one began in 1995 and involved AARP members ages 50 to 71 in California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania and Atlanta and Detroit. People who already had heart disease, a stroke or cancer weren't included. Neither were folks at diet extremes - too many or too few calories per day.

The rest gave information on coffee drinking once, at the start of the study. "People are fairly consistent in their coffee drinking over their lifetime," so the single measure shouldn't be a big limitation, Freedman said.

Of the 402,260 participants, about 42,000 drank no coffee. About 15,000 drank six cups or more a day. Most people had two or three.

By 2008, about 52,000 of them had died. Compared to those who drank no coffee, men who had two or three cups a day were 10 percent less likely to die at any age. For women, it was 13 percent.

Even a single cup a day seemed to lower risk a little: 6 percent in men and 5 percent in women. The strongest effect was in women who had four or five cups a day - a 16 percent lower risk of death.

None of these are big numbers, though, and Freedman can't say how much extra life coffee might buy.

"I really can't calculate that," especially because smoking is a key factor that affects longevity at every age, he said.

Coffee drinkers were less likely to die from heart or respiratory disease, stroke, diabetes, injuries, accidents or infections. No effect was seen on cancer death risk, though.

Other research ties coffee drinking to lower levels of markers for inflammation and insulin resistance. Researchers also considered that people in poor health might refrain from drinking coffee and whether their abstention could bias the results. But the study excluded people with cancer and heart disease - the most common health problems - to minimize this chance. Also, the strongest benefits of coffee drinking were seen in people who were healthiest when the study began.

About two-thirds of study participants drank regular coffee, and the rest, decaf. The type of coffee made no difference in the results.

Hu had this advice for coffee lovers:

- Watch the sugar and cream. Extra calories and fat could negate any benefits from coffee.

- Drink filtered coffee rather than boiled - filtering removes compounds that raise LDL, the bad cholesterol.

Researchers did not look at tea, soda or other beverages but plan to in future analyses.

Lou and Mariann Maris have already compared them. Sipping a local brew at a lakefront coffee shop, the suburban Milwaukee couple told of how they missed coffee after briefly giving it up in the 1970s as part of a health kick that included transcendental meditation and eating vegetarian.

Mariann Maris switched to tea after being treated for breast cancer in 2008, but again missed the taste of coffee. It's one of life's great pleasures, especially because her husband makes it, she said.

"Nothing is as satisfying to me as a cup of coffee in the morning," she said.